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Home / IAS Preparation / Changing modes of production in Indian agriculture

Changing Modes of Production in Indian Agriculture: Navigating Historical Transitions

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India's agricultural sector has undergone a remarkable transformation over the centuries, shaped by evolving economic systems, technological advancements, and social aspirations. The changing modes of production in Indian agriculture have been characterized by a gradual shift from traditional labor-intensive methods to modern technology-driven approaches. This evolution has had a profound impact on the productivity, sustainability, and social structure of rural India. This article delves into the intricacies of these changes, exploring the evolution of agriculture in India from different production perspectives.

This article is important for students preparing for the UPSC CSE Exam. If you want extra help to study well for the exam, you can join UPSC Coaching.

Subsistence and Domestic Mode

Pre-colonial Vedic-age farming involved subsistence cultivation by households using family labour and basic tools to fulfill needs. Surplus was mainly non-monetized barter.

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Feudal-Colonial Mode

The Feudal-Colonial Mode of Production (FCMP) was a system of economic organization that emerged in India under the rule of the Mughals and the British. It was characterized by the exploitation of peasant farmers by landlords, who extracted high rents in cash or kind. Production was focused on export crops like indigo, opium, jute, and cotton, which were grown for the benefit of the colonial powers.

Key Characteristics of the Feudal-Colonial Mode of Production:

  • Landlord-tenant system: The FCMP was based on a landowning class of zamindars or ryots, who controlled large tracts of land. Peasant farmers, known as tenants or ryots, rented land from these landlords and paid them rent in cash or kind.
  • High rents: The rents extracted by landlords were often high and exploitative, leaving peasant farmers with little surplus to reinvest in their land or improve their livelihoods.
  • Focus on export crops: Production under the FCMP was primarily focused on export crops such as indigo, opium, jute, and cotton. These crops were grown for the benefit of the colonial powers, who used them as raw materials for their industries.
  • Subsistence agriculture: Peasant farmers also cultivated food crops for their own consumption, but they were often left with little surplus after paying rent and taxes. This led to widespread poverty and malnutrition among the peasantry.

Also Read Lineage and Descent.

Capitalistic Trends

Post-independence, India embarked on a path of agricultural modernization, adopting the capitalist mode of production. This involved the introduction of high-yielding varieties of seeds, chemical fertilizers, and mechanization. The Green Revolution, a period of intensive agricultural development in the 1960s and 1970s, was a pivotal moment in this transformation.

Corporate Capitalism

Liberalization opened India to global agri-business giants. Contracting outflows led to industrial scale plantations of vegetables, flowers overlooking smallholders' rights.

Study the Article Development and Dependency here!

Newer Models

Organic and natural farming is gaining traction. Cooperatives ensure fair prices. Micro-irrigation projects aid climate resilience. Self-help groups empower women entrepreneurs in food processing.

Modes Compared

Mode

Production

Relations

Technology

Ownership

Surplus Use

Subsistence

Basic fulfillment

Family-based

Primitive tools

Individual cultivators

Non-monetized barter

Feudal

Export crops

Patron-client

Basic tools

Landlords over tenants

High rents in kind/cash

Mid-20th century

Commercial

Owned cultivation

Improved tools

Fragmented smallholdings

Market surplus

Corporate

Industrial scale

Contract farming

Machinery

Large agri-companies

Maximize profits

New age

Sustainable

Cooperative networks

Micro-irrigation

Collectives, smallhold

 -

Factors Driving Shifts

Political control (colonialism), land reforms, technology (Green Revolution), reforms (liberalization) and environmental concerns facilitated the transitions between diverse historic modes of production.

Impact of Changing Modes of Production

The changing modes of production in Indian agriculture have had a significant impact on the sector's productivity, sustainability, and social structure.

  • Productivity: Modern agricultural practices have led to substantial increases in crop yields, contributing to India's food security.
  • Sustainability: Concerns about the environmental and social impacts of intensive agriculture have led to the emergence of sustainable agriculture practices, emphasizing soil health, water conservation, and organic farming methods.
  • Social Structure: The transformation of agriculture has influenced rural social structures, affecting land tenure, labor markets, and income distribution.

Check out the Article Sociological Theories of Social Change.

Contemporary Challenges and Future Directions

Indian agriculture continues to face challenges, including:

  • Smallholder farmer vulnerability: Smallholder farmers face challenges related to access to credit, technology, and markets, making them more susceptible to risks and shocks.
  • Environmental degradation: Intensive agriculture practices have raised concerns about soil health, water pollution, and biodiversity loss.
  • Climate change: Climate change poses significant threats to agricultural productivity and sustainability, requiring adaptation and mitigation strategies.

Future directions for Indian agriculture include:

  • Promoting climate-smart agriculture: Adapting to and mitigating the impacts of climate change through sustainable practices and diversification of crops.
  • Empowering smallholder farmers: Enhancing access to credit, technology, and markets for smallholder farmers to improve their livelihood and resilience.
  • Preserving traditional knowledge: Incorporating traditional agricultural practices and knowledge into modern farming systems to enhance sustainability and resilience.

Conclusion: A Continuous Evolving Landscape

The changing modes of production in Indian agriculture reflect the dynamic nature of the sector and its adaptation to evolving economic, social, and environmental conditions. As India strives to achieve sustainable and inclusive agricultural development, it will be essential to address the challenges and embrace new opportunities to ensure a brighter future for the country's rural communities and the nation's food security.

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More Articles for IAS Preparation

Changing Modes of Production in Indian Agriculture FAQs

Capitalist farming emerged after land reforms involving tractors, tube wells run by owner-cultivators. Corporate model contract-grows export crops at large industrial scales often sidelining surrounding smallholders.

Political control shifts, land ownership forms, technological breakthroughs, economic policies and more recently, environmental concerns induced changes over centuries in different historical contexts.

It fragmented castes into tenants and laborers with rentier landlords, converted subsistence into export monocultures, disrupted indigenous resource management which increased vulnerability.

While some prospered, landless and marginal holders face constraints in accessing technologies, finances and markets continuing smallholder distress mirroring uneven development impacting sustainability.

Holistic policies promoting smallholder cooperatives, climate-resilient techniques, entrepreneurship in value chains, access to infrastructure in tandem can balance economic viability and social justice for sustainable transformation.
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